Canada’s History

Table Of Content

Aboriginal Peoples 

"Indians" – name given by European explorers who thought they reached East Indies.

Natives lived off the land:

• Huron-Wendat, Iroquois - farmers & hunters.
• Cree, Dene - hunter-gatherers.
• Sioux - nomads, followed bison (buffalo) herds.
• Inuit - hunted Arctic wildlife.
• West Coast tribes - preserved fish by drying and smoking.

Arrival of European Traders - Changed the native way of life forever.

• Many Aboriginal people died from European diseases due to a lack of immunity.
• Aboriginals and Europeans built strong ties in their first 200 years together.

  • Laid the foundation of Canada.

The First Europeans

Around 1,000 years ago, Vikings from Iceland reached Labrador and Newfoundland.

• Their settlement (L’Anse aux Meadows) is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

John Cabot (1497) - First to map Canada’s Atlantic shore.

• Landed on Newfoundland or Cape Breton, claiming it for England.

Jacques Cartier (1534–1542): First European to explore the St. Lawrence River.

• Discovered present-day Québec City and Montreal.
• Made three voyages, claimed land for King Francis I of France.
• First heard “Kanata” (Iroquoian for “village”).

English settlement did not begin until 1610. 

By the 1550s, the name of Canada began appearing on maps.

Royal New France

The first European settlement north of Florida was founded in 1604.

• French explorers - Pierre de Monts & Samuel de Champlain.
• St. Croix Island (present-day Maine) & Port Royal, Acadia (Nova Scotia). 

Samuel de Champlain:

• Built a fortress at what is now Québec City (1608).
• Allied with Algonquin, Montagnais, Huron - enemies of the Iroquois.
• Iroquois - Confederation of five (later six) First Nations.
• The French and Iroquois made peace in 1701.

The French and Aboriginals collaborated fur-trade economy (driven by Beaver pelts).

Jean Talon, Bishop Laval, and Count Frontenac built a French Empire in North America.

• Stretched from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico.

Struggle for a Continent

In 1670, King Charles III granted the Hudson’s Bay Company exclusive trading rights.

• For the next 100 years, it competed with Montreal-based traders.

Voyageurs & Coureurs des bois - Skilled and courageous men who travelled by canoe.

• Formed alliances with First Nations.

In the 1700s, Britain and France battled for control of North America.

• In 1759, the British won the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Québec City.
• Ended France’s empire in America.
• Both commanders died - Brigadier James Wolfe & Marquis de Montcalm.

Province of Quebec & Quebec Act

After the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, Great Britain renamed New France as the Province of Quebec.

Quebec Act (1774)

Allowed Catholic religious freedom.

Let Catholics hold public office (previously not allowed).

Restored French civil law, while keeping British criminal law.

Sir Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester):

• Defended Canadiens’ rights.
• Repelled the 1775 U.S. invasion.
• Led Loyalist migration (1782–83).

In 1690, Count Frontenac refused to surrender Quebec: “My only reply will be from the mouths of my cannons!”

Pierre d’Iberville led French victories over the English from James Bay to the Caribbean (late 1600s–early 1700s).

United Empire Loyalists (Post-American Revolution, 1776)

In 1776, the 13 British colonies south of Quebec declared independence, forming the United States.

Over 40,000 Loyalists fled to Canada during the American Revolution, settling in Nova Scotia and Quebec.

Joseph Brant led thousands of Loyalist Mohawks to Canada.

About 3,000 Black Loyalists—freedmen and former slaves—also sought freedom in Canada.

In 1792, some Black Nova Scotians, given poor land, moved to West Africa and founded Freetown, Sierra Leone.

On January 21, 1793, Lower Canada’s first elected Assembly debated whether to use both French and English.

Beginnings of Democracy

The first representative assembly was elected in Halifax, Nova Scotia (1758).

Other early assemblies: Prince Edward Island (1773) & New Brunswick (1785).

Constitutional Act of 1791

Divided Quebec into:

• Upper Canada (Ontario) – English, Protestant, Loyalist.
• Lower Canada (Quebec) – French, Catholic.

The name "Canada" became official.

Gave both regions elected legislative assemblies.

The Atlantic colonies and the two Canadas were known collectively as British North America.

Abolition of Slavery

In the late 1700s, the First movement to abolish the transatlantic slave trade emerged.

In 1793, Upper Canada (led by John Graves Simcoe) became the first province to move toward abolition.

In 1807, Britain prohibited the buying and selling of slaves.

In 1833, Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire.

Many slaves escaped the U.S. via the Underground Railroad (a Christian anti-slavery network) and settled in Canada.

A Growing Economy

Canada’s early economy - fur, fish, & timber.

During the French & British regimes, the first companies in Canada were formed.

In the late 18th & early 19th century, the first financial institutions opened.

Trading posts became cities - Fort Garry (Winnipeg), Fort Edmonton, Fort Victoria.

The Montreal Stock Exchange was founded in 1832.

John Graves Simcoe - First Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. 

• Founded the City of York (now Toronto).

Mary Ann Shadd Cary - An anti-slavery activist from the U.S. 

• In 1853, she became the first woman publisher in Canada. 

• Found and edited The Provincial Freeman, a weekly newspaper. 

War of 1812

The U.S. invaded Canada in June 1812.

Key defenders:

• Chief Tecumseh, along with Canadian volunteers and First Nations, supported British soldiers in Canada’s defence.
• Sir Isaac Brock captured Detroit in July.
  • Killed at Queenston Heights, near Niagara Falls.
• Charles de Salaberry, in 1813, repelled 4,000 Americans at Châteauguay.
• Laura Secord walked 30 km to warn the British of the attack.

In 1813, Americans burned York (Toronto) - Government House & Parliament Buildings.

• In retaliation in 1814, Robert Ross burned down the White House in Washington, D.C.

By 1814, the American attempt to conquer Canada had failed.

• Britain built key defences - Citadels at Halifax & Québec City, a Naval drydock at Halifax, and Fort Henry at Kingston.

Duke of Wellington - Defeated Napoleon in 1815

• In 1814, he sent top soldiers to defend Canada. Chose Bytown (now Ottawa) as an endpoint of the Rideau Canal to prevent future U.S. invasions.

Laura Secord - Canadian Heroine

• In 1813, walked 30 km to warn the British of a U.S. attack (led to victory at the Battle of Beaver Dams).

Rebellions of 1837–38

In the 1830s, Upper and Lower Canada demanded more democracy and the adoption of American republican values.

• In 1837 - 38, there were armed uprisings in the Toronto and Montreal areas.

Lord Durham (English reformer):

• Recommended uniting Upper and Lower Canada & be given responsible government.
• Believed progress meant adopting the English language and Protestant culture.

Father of Confederations - Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché, Sir George-Étienne Cartier, & Sir John A. Macdonald.

Responsible Government

In 1840, Upper & Lower Canada united as the Province of Canada.

Reformers - La Fontaine, Baldwin, and Howe worked toward democracy.

Nova Scotia - first British North American colony to attain full responsible government (1847–48).

In 1848–49, Lord Elgin implemented responsible government in the United Canada.

• Now, if the government loses a confidence vote, it must resign.

Sir Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine - Champion of French language rights.

• In 1849, became the first head of a responsible government (like a PM)

The Fathers of Confederation (British North America Act) established the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867 (Birth of Canada; now celebrated as Canada Day).

Confederation (1864–1867)

Fathers of Confederation (representatives of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada):

• Created two levels of government - federal & provincial.
• Split the Province of Canada into Ontario and Quebec.

Dominion of Canada - New Brunswick + Nova Scotia + Ontario + Quebec.

The name “Dominion of Canada” was proposed by Sir Leonard Tilley, inspired by Psalm 72: “dominion from sea to sea”.

King George V (portrait on a 1923 $1 bill) chose Canada’s red and white colours in 1921 (National flag colours today).

Expansion of the Dominion

1867 – Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick.

1870 – Manitoba, Northwest Territories.

1871 – British Columbia.

1873 – Prince Edward Island.

1880 – Arctic Islands.

1898 – Yukon Territory.

1905 – Alberta, Saskatchewan.

1949 – Newfoundland and Labrador.

1999 – Nunavut.

Métis Resistance & Western Challenges

In 1869, Canada took the Northwest from the Hudson’s Bay Company without consulting the Métis.

• In response, Louis Riel led an uprising; seized Fort Garry.
• In 1870, Ottawa sent soldiers to retake Fort Garry; Riel fled to the U.S.
• Canada established a new province, Manitoba.

Louis Riel - Defender of Métis rights and the father of Manitoba. 

In 1885, the Second Rebellion happened in Saskatchewan; Riel’s executed for high treason.

North West Mounted Police (NWMP)

• Formed by PM Macdonald in 1873 (Headquarters - Regina).
• Founded towns - Fort Calgary & Fort MacLeod.

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP or Mounties)

• National police force & Canada’s best-known symbol.
• Major General Sir Sam Steele came from the ranks of the Mounties.

Canada’s First Prime Minister

Sir John A. Macdonald - Canada’s first Prime Minister in 1867.

• Born in Scotland on January 11, 1815.
• January 11 - Sir John A. Macdonald Day
• His portrait is on the $10 bill.

Sir George-Étienne Cartier - key architect of Confederation from Quebec.

The Railway from Sea to Sea

British Columbia joined Canada in 1871; Ottawa promised to build a railway to the West Coast.

The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was completed in 1885 (by Donald Smith, Lord Strathcona)

• Built by European & Chinese labourers.
• Head Tax imposed on Chinese (race-based entry fee); formal apology in 2006.

Western Settlement & Immigration Boom

Economic Boom (Canada’s economy grew) in the 1890s and early 1900s.

• 1 million British & 1 million Americans immigrated to Canada.

Sir Wilfrid Laurier (First French-Canadian PM since Confederation)

• Encouraged immigration to the West.
• His portrait is on the $5 bill.

The First World War (1914–1918)

Canada joined Britain when Germany attacked Belgium & France in 1914.

• Ottawa formed the Canadian Expeditionary Force (later Canadian Corps)

600,000+ Canadians served (mostly volunteers); 60,000 died, 170,000 wounded

Battle of Vimy Ridge (April 1917) - WWI’s first British victory

• Canada earned military respect as “shock troops of the British Empire”.

From 1914 to 1920, Ottawa interned over 8,000 former Austro-Hungarian subjects, mainly Ukrainian men (Enemy Aliens).

In 1918, led by General Sir Arthur Currie (Canada’s greatest soldier), the Canadian Corps fought in the war’s final 100 days.

• Battle of Amiens (Aug 8, 1918) – Black day of the German Army.

Germany and Austria surrendered; the war ended in the Armistice on November 11, 1918.

The Vimy Memorial in France honours Canadians who served and died on April 9, 1917. 

Women Get the Vote

At the time of Confederation, the vote was limited to property-owning adult white males.

Women’s Suffrage Movement (efforts by women to achieve the right to vote)

• Founder - Dr. Emily Stowe (First Canadian woman to practise medicine)

In 1916, Manitoba became the first province to grant voting rights to women.

In 1917, the federal vote was given to:

• Women nurses at war.

• Women with relatives in service.

By 1918, most Canadian women over 21 could vote.

In 1921, Agnes Macphail became the first woman Prime Minister.

In 1940, Quebec granted voting rights to women (thanks to Thérèse Casgrain)

Over 3,000 nurses, known as “Bluebirds,” served in the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps; 2,500 served overseas.

Remembrance Day - November 11 

Commemorates the sacrifices of veterans and brave fallen in all wars up to the present day.

Canadians wear red poppies & observe a moment of silence at 11:00 a.m., 11th day, 11th month.

Poem often recited - “In Flanders Fields” by Lt. Col. John McCrae.

Between the Wars

After WWI, the British Empire evolved into the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Roaring Twenties (1920s) - Economic boom.

Great Depression (Dirty Thirties) - Stock market crash of 1929.

• Unemployment hit 27% by 1933.

• Farmers hit hard by drought and low grain prices.

In 1934, the Bank of Canada was created (bringing stability to the financial system).

The Second World War (1939–1945)

Canada declared war after Germany invaded Poland.

Over 1 million Canadians served (44,000 died).

Major battles:

• Dieppe Raid (1942) – failed attack on France.
• Hong Kong (1941) – heavy Canadian losses.
• Battle of Britain – RCAF pilots; Canada contributed most to the Allied air effort.
• D-Day (June 6, 1944) – 15,000 Canadians stormed Juno Beach.
  • One in ten Allied soldiers was Canadian.
• Liberation of the Netherlands (1944 - 45).
• Battle of the Atlantic – The Royal Canadian Navy protected convoys of merchant ships

Canada trained 130,000 aircrews under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan.

By the end of World War II, Canada had the 3rd largest navy in the world.

Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945 (end of six years of war in Europe).

Japan surrendered on August 14, 1945 (end of four years of war in the Pacific).

Japanese Canadians were forcibly relocated during WWII, and their property was sold.

Canada apologized and compensated the victims in 1988.